What  is the name of the theory reinforcement (R) and punishment (P) are a  part of? Explain the name. (2) Who create

Cognitive Distortions

A distortion* of thinking is something that may have some truth to it, but overall is not valid, objective, and reliable. Cognitive distortions hamper problem solving, reasoning, and decision making by distorting reality during a subjective mental process. It takes the focus off the factors that are actually operating. Synonyms for distortion would include: twisted, contorted, misshapen, and awry

ALL or NOTHING THINKING (Polarized): You see things in black-or-white categories. If a situation is anything less than perfect you see it as a total failure. Phrases include extremes such as “always/never”, “everyone/no one”.

OVERGENERALIZATION: Your see a single event as a never-ending pattern of defeat by using the words always or never when you think about it.

MENTAL FILTER: You pick out a single negative detail and dwell on it exclusively. One word of criticism erases all the praise you’ve received.

DISCOUNTING THE POSITIVE (Minimizing): You reject positive experiences by insisting they “don’t count.” If you do a good job, you tell yourself that anyone could have done as well. Watch for the word “just”.

JUMPING TO CONCLUSIONS: You interpret things negatively (or positively) when there are no facts to support your conclusion. Two common variations are mind-reading (you arbitrarily conclude that someone is reacting negatively to you) and fortune-telling (you assume and predict that things will turn out badly).

MAGNIFICATION (Catastrophizing): You exaggerate the importance of your problems and shortcomings, or you minimize your desirable qualities. This is also called the “binocular trick.”

EMOTIONAL REASONING: You assume that your negative emotions reflect the way things realty are: “I feel guilty. I must be a rotten person.”

“SHOULD” STATEMENTS: You tell yourself that things should be the way you hoped or expected them to be. Many people try to motivate themselves with should or shouldn’t as if they had to be punished before they could be expected to do anything. These statements include words such as “should”, “must”, “have to”, “need to”.

LABELING: This is an extreme form of all-or-nothing thinking. Instead of saying “I made a mistake,” you attach a negative label to yourself: “I’m a loser,”

PERSONALIZATION AND BLAME: You hold yourself personally responsible for events that aren’t entirely under you Control.

GRASS IS GREENER: You believe that whatever you have now is unacceptable and that life would be better “if only” you made a change. “If only I worked in X department. . .” or “If only I had X for a supervisor. . .”

Adapted from The Good Feeling Handbook, copyright © 1989 by David D. Burns, M.D. Reprinted by Permission of William Morrow & Co. Inc.

*Merriam Webster FULL DEFINITION (scroll down) of distortion

Accessed 11/04/16: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/distort

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CHAPTER 4: LEARNING

Behaviorism

Learning: a relatively permanent change in organism B due to experience

Experience, option 1: Associative or Classical Conditioning (pp. 151-161)

(conditioning means learning a new behavior)

Pavlov’s Experiments p. 155

Office/altoids

Generalization (John Watson—you tube) p. 159

Discrimination p. 161

Learning experience, option 2: Operant Conditioning (pp. 163-170)

Law of effect—Thorndike p. 164

Pleasure principle—Plato

Skinner’s Experiments at Harvard created the operant chamber and operant theory

A = Antecedent—environment, correlations, occurs before the B, trigger, influence, needs to be controlled for B to occur

B = Target Behavior—increases or decreases in the frequency of B

C = Consequences—causes and controls behavior, comes in two main groups and five types (# below), occurs after the B

Reinforcement, “appetitive” p. 165

Positive Reinforcement

Primary (#1) and Conditioned (secondary)(#2) Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement (#3)—past, present, future

Punishment, “aversive” p. 165

Positive punishment (#4) “application”

Negative punishment (#5) “removal”

Does not teach correct behavior

Must be swift, severe, consistent p. 165

Must avoid not “catching” or negative reinforcement occurs

Sheldon/Penny

Classical conditioning is a part of Operant conditioning—association of antecedent to target behavior, and target behavior to consequence is critical for success p. 165

Experience, option 3: Observational/Social learning/Vicarious conditioning

Bandura’s Experiments pp. 189-191

(extensions: nothing, punish, reward)

Elements: attention, memory, motivation, and neuronal support

Prosocial Observational Learning

Positive, constructive, helpful, socio-competent

Antisocial Observational Learning

Negative, destructive, hurtful, socio-incompetent

Vicarious conditioning

Motivation is essential for learning to occur

UCLA longitudinal research: why do people go to college?

Motivation: a need or desire (factors of differing strength) that energizes and directs and sustains behavior

“process by which activities are started, directed, and continued. . .needs or wants are met” (Ciccarelli & White)

p. 179

Five Factors to motivation:

Satisfaction of needs

Drive reduction p. 179

Incentives p. 180

Pleasure principle

Optimal arousal level p. 180

Intrinsic (value, pleasure) and Extrinsic (goal outside self) motivation (p. 181)

Goals: characteristics (Canvas)

Maslow’s “Hierarchy of Needs” provides an example of a personality theory and an example of motivation theory (Canvas)

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Critical Thinking – Essential Intellectual Traits

Intellectual Humility vs. Intellectual Arrogance

Having a consciousness of the limits of one’s knowledge, including sensitivity to circumstances in which one’s native egocentrism is likely to function self-deceptively; sensitivity to bias; prejudice and limitations of one’s viewpoint. Intellectual humility depends on recognizing that one should not claim to know more than one actually knows. It does not imply spinelessness or submissiveness. It implies the lack of intellectual pretentiousness, boastfulness, or conceit, combine with the insight into the logical foundations, or lack of such foundations, of one’s beliefs.

Intellectual Courage vs. Intellectual Cowardice

Having a consciousness of the need to face and fairly address ideas, beliefs or viewpoints toward which we have strong negative emotions and to which we have not given a serious hearing. This courage is connected with the recognition that ideas considered dangerous or absurd are sometimes rationally justified (in whole or in part) and that conclusions and beliefs inculcated in us are sometimes false or misleading. To determine for ourselves which is which, we must not passively and uncritically “accept” what we have “learned”. Intellectual courage comes into play here, because inevitably we will come to see some truth in some ideas considered dangerous and absurd, and distortion or falsity in some strongly held in our social group. We need the courage to be true to our own thinking in such circumstances. The penalties for nonconformity can be severe.

Intellectual Empathy vs. Intellectual Narrow-mindedness

Having a consciousness of the need to imaginatively put oneself in the place of others in order to genuinely understand them, which requires the consciousness of our egocentric tendency to identify truth with our immediate perceptions of long-standing thought or belief. This trait correlates with the ability to reconstruct accurately the viewpoints and reasoning of others and to reason from premises, assumptions, and ideas other than our own. This trait also correlates with the willingness to remember occasions when we were wrong in the past despite an intense conviction that we were right, and with the ability to imagine our being similarly deceived in a case-at-hand.

Intellectual Autonomy vs. Intellectual Conformity

Having rational control of one’s beliefs, values, and inferences. The ideal of critical thinking is to learn to think for oneself, to gain command over one’s thought process. It entails a commitment to analyzing and evaluating beliefs on the basis of reason and evidence, to question when it is rational to question, to believe when it is rational to believe, and to conform when it is rational to conform.

Intellectual Integrity vs. Intellectual Hypocrisy

Recognition of the need to be true to one’s own thinking; to be consistent in the intellectual standards one applies; to hold one’s self to the same rigorous standards of evidence and proof to which one holds one’s antagonists; to practice what one advocates for others; and to honestly admit discrepancies and inconsistencies in one’s own thought and action.

Intellectual Perseverance vs. Intellectual Laziness

Having a consciousness of the need to use intellectual insights and truths in spite of difficulties, obstacles and frustrations; firm adherence to rational principles despite the irrational opposition of others; a sense of the need to struggle with confusion and unsettled questions over an extended period of time to achieve deeper understanding or insight.

Confidence in Reason vs. Distrust of Reason and Evidence

Confidence that, in the long run, one’s own higher interests and those of humankind at large will be best served by giving the freest play to reason, by encouraging people to come to their own conclusions by developing their own rational faculties; faith that, with the proper encouragement and cultivation, people can learn to think for themselves, to form rational viewpoints, draw reasonable conclusions, think coherently and logically, persuade each other by reason and become reasonable persons, despite the deep-seated obstacles in the native character of the human mind and in society as we know it.

Fairmindedness vs. Intellectual Unfairness

Having a consciousness of the need to treat all viewpoints alike, without reference to one’s own feelings or vested interests, or the feelings or vested interests of one’s friends, community or nation; implies adherence to intellectual standards without reference to one’s own advantage or the advantage of one’s group.

Critical Thinking.org pp. 14-15

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CHAPTER 5: MEMORY

Memory: nervous system’s capacity to acquire and retain skills and knowledge for later retrieval

Process of memory: Encoding, storage, and retrieval p. 218

Encoding: putting information in (pp. 218-224)

Distribution and practice influence efficacy of encoding; know brain parts and function to predict encoding routes

Storing: housing information in the brain and keeping this information accessible

Lashley, K. (1950) mazes and rats and brains

Synaptic Changes

Stress Hormones and Memory

The Hippocampus (stress = decrease)

The Amygdala (stress = increase)

Retrieval: getting stored information out of the brain p. 255

Retrieval Cues—mnemonics pp. 222-223

Association areas p. 74

Mood congruent memory p. 222

Types of memory: Short-Term Memory (p. 206): Sensory (p. 202) and Working Memory (p. 208) , and Long-Term Memory (p. 209)

LTM types in detail p. 210

Automatic Processing—implicit, unconscious, procedural LTM

(unconscious, low effort; often the cerebellum and basal ganglia for movement)

Effortful Processing—explicit, conscious knowledge, declarative LTM

(conscious effort needed, procedures and associations; often the hippocampus)

Improving Memory

Know your brain!

Distribute study time—no cramming

Apply concepts to yourself and others you know

Minimize interference—no multitasking (newspaper and music)

Mnemonics

Sleep more

Exercise each day

Acetylcholine (nutrition)

Test yourself—use the textbook for this too

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Professor Dweck has primary research interests in motivation, personality, and development. She teaches courses in Personality and Social Development as well as Motivation. Her key contribution to social psychology relates to implicit theories of intelligence.

This is present in her book entitled Mindset: The New Psychology of Success which was published in 2006. According to Dweck, individuals can be placed on a continuum according to their implicit views of where ability comes from.

Some believe their success is based on innate ability; these are said to have a "fixed" theory of intelligence.

Others, who believe their success is based on hard work and learning, are said to have a "growth" or an "incremental" theory of intelligence.

Individuals may not necessarily be aware of their own mindset, but their mindset can still be discerned based on their behavior. It is especially evident in their reaction to failure.

Fixed-mindset individuals dread failure because it is a negative statement on their basic abilities, while growth mindset individuals don't mind failure as much because they realize their performance can be improved.

These two mindsets play an important role in all aspects of a person's life.

Dweck argues that the growth mindset will allow a person to live a less stressful and more successful life.This is important because individuals with a "growth" theory are more likely to continue working hard despite setbacks

For example, children given praise such as "good job, you're very smart" are much more likely to develop a fixed mindset, whereas if given compliments like "good job, you worked very hard" they are likely to develop a growth mindset.

In other words, it is possible to encourage students, for example, to persist despite failure by encouraging them to think about learning in a certain way.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Dweck

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

From Psychology – The Search for Understanding

By Janet A. Simons, Donald B. Irwin and Beverly A. Drinnien

West Publishing Company, New York, 1987

Abraham Maslow developed a theory of personality that has influenced a number of different fields, including education. This wide influence is due in part to the high level of practicality of Maslow’s theory. This theory accurately describes many realities of personal experiences. Many people find they can understand what Maslow says. They can recognize some features of their experience or behavior which is true and identifiable but which they have never put into words.

Maslow is a humanistic psychologist (third force alert!). Humanists do not believe that human beings are pushed and pulled by mechanical forces, either of stimuli and reinforcement (behaviorism) or of the unconscious instinctual impulses (psychoanalysis). Humanists focus on potentials. They believe that humans strive for an upper level of capabilities. Humans seek the frontiers of creativity, the highest reaches of consciousness and wisdom. This has been labeled “fully functioning person,” “healthy personality,” or as Maslow calls this level, “self-actualizing person.”

Maslow has set up a hierarchic theory of needs. All of his basic needs are instinctoid, equivalent of instincts in animals. Humans start with a very weak disposition that is then fashioned fully as the person grows. If the environment is right, people will grow straight and beautiful, actualizing the potentials they have inherited. If the environment (culture, typically) is not “right” (and mostly it is not) they will not grow tall and straight and beautiful.

Maslow has set up a hierarchy of five levels of basic needs. Beyond these needs, higher levels of needs exist. These include needs for understanding, esthetic appreciation and purely spiritual needs.

There are many misinterpretations of this theory. One frequent error people make, without reading Maslow directly this is bound to happen, is believing all the d-needs must be completed before moving towards the B-needs. Quite the opposite; all of these needs are present throughout a lifetime. It is impossible to satisfy them fully.

Maslow’s basic needs are as follows:

Physiological Needs

These are biological needs. They consist of needs for oxygen, food, water, and a relatively constant body temperature. They are the strongest needs because if a person were deprived of all needs, the physiological ones would come first in the person’s search for satisfaction. A d-need (means this need is most clearly emergent when not enough of it is present).

Safety Needs

Safety and security are based on organization and predictability. Adults have little awareness of their security needs except in times of emergency or periods of disorganization in the social structure (such as widespread rioting). Children often display the signs of insecurity and the need to be safe. A d-need.

Needs of Love, Affection and Belongingness

Maslow states that people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and alienation. This involves both giving and receiving love, affection and the sense of belonging. These are called the social needs; humans are primates, which means we will have several, complex social needs. A d-need.

Needs for Esteem

Esteem involves a need for both self-esteem and the need the esteem a person gets from others. Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect, and respect from others. When these needs are satisfied, the person feels self-confident and valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless and worthless. A d-need.

Needs for Self-Actualization

Maslow describes self-actualization as a person’s need to be and do that which the person was “born to do. A musician must make music, an artist must paint, and a poet must write.” This need makes itself felt in signs of restlessness. The person feels on edge, tense, lacking something; in short, restless and perhaps bored. If a person is hungry, unsafe, not loved or accepted, or lacking self-esteem, it is very easy to know what the person is needing. It is not always clear what a person wants when there is a need for self-actualization. This is one of four B-needs. B-needs and Being needs; this means that these are not going to emerge based on not having them. They will emerge as the authentic self begins to form.

The hierarchic theory is often represented as a pyramid, with the larger, lower levels representing the lower needs, and the upper point representing the need for self-actualization. Maslow believes that the only reason that people would not move well in direction of self-actualization is because of hindrances placed in their way by society. He states that education is one of these hindrances. He recommends ways education can switch from its usual person-stunting tactics to person-growing approaches. Maslow states that educators should respond to the potential an individual has for growing into a self-actualizing person of his/her own kind.

Ten points that educators should address are listed:

1. We should teach people to be authentic, to be aware of their inner selves and to hear their inner-feeling voices.

2. We should teach people to transcend their cultural conditioning and become world citizens.

3. We should help people discover their vocation in life, their calling, fate, or destiny. This is especially focused on finding the right career and the right mate.

4. We should teach people that life is precious, that there is joy to be experienced in life, and if people are open to seeing the good and joyous in all kinds of situations, it makes life worth living.

5. We must accept the person as he or she is and help the person learn their inner nature. From real knowledge of aptitudes and limitations we can know what to build upon, what potentials are really there.

6. We must see that the person’s basic needs are satisfied. This includes safety, belongingness, and esteem needs.

7. We should refresh consciousness, teaching the person to appreciate beauty and the other good things in nature and in living.

8. We should teach people that controls are good, and complete abandon is bad. It takes control to improve the quality of life in all areas.

9. We should teach people to transcend the trifling problems and grapple with the serious problems in life. These include the problems of injustice, of pain, suffering, and death.

10. We must teach people to be good choosers. They must be given practice in making good choices.

Adapted for use at Spokane Falls Community College (2013)

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CHAPTER 6: COGNITION: THINKING and INTELLIGENCE

Cognition: the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

“mental activity. . .processing information (organizing, understanding, communicating)” (Ciccarelli & White, 2015, p. 262).

Piaget’s Cognitive development theory (pp. 299-305)

Assimilation and Accommodation p. 300

1. Sensorimotor stage. Birth to 2 years. Use and organize senses and movement into schemas (brain and body interconnected). Six sub-stages.

2. Preoperational stage. 2 to 7 years. The child uses words and images to represent objects in the world. “Does it through”—unable to think or “think it through”. Pretend to reality through observation and responsibility. Two sub-stages.

3. Concrete operational stage. 7 to 11 years. Children can classify objects into different groups. Centration and conservation.

4. Formal operational stage. 12 and on (frontal lobe by 25). Development and refinement of abstract thoughts, logic, and critical thinking. Wide spectrums of thought—multiple perspectives for multiple contexts.

Vygotsky: scaffolding and independence “zones of proximal development”

pp. 307-308

Thinking: the mental manipulation of representations of information encountered in environments p. 243

Representations:

Analogous (pictures, includes characteristics)

or

Symbolic (words, abstract, intrinsically unrelated, related through nurture)

Thinking has three goals: reasoning, decision making, and problem solving

Thinking comes in two basic types: book calls them “solution strategies”

Algorithms lead to more effective reasoning, decision making, and problem solving but take time to process (p. 247)

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi developed the idea of an algorithm in mathematics

Example: Problem Solving Algorithm (Canvas)

Obstacles to algorithmic thinking:

Cognitive distortions (Canvas)

Linguistic determinism (“bird” but do not know bird)

Fixation and functional fixedness (pp. 244-245)

The USES test

Heuristics create less effective reasoning, decision making, and problem solving yet limits time involvement (p. 248)

“a simple rule that is intended to apply to many situations”

(Ciccarelli & White, 2015, p. 267)

There are six at this time:

Availability Heuristic (p. 257)

Anchoring Heuristic (p. 249)

Simulation Heuristic

Representativeness Heuristic (p. 255)

Working backward (p. 249)

Means-end analysis (p. 250)

Intelligence

Definitions:

ability to learn from and remember experience

ability to adapt (time, place, person, problem)

ability integrate new information into existing information

ability to acquire and use knowledge to reason, make decisions and problem solve

ability to use resources effectively

Assessing and measuring intelligence

Aptitude and Achievement tests

Binet and why IQ is starts to become meaningless after 16 (p. 268)

1945 IQ

Reliability and Validity and Standardization (pp. 269-270)

Multiple theories about Multiple Intelligences:

“creative, divergent thinking if often a neglected topic in the education of young people” (Sternberg, R.)

Gardner, H. (p. 273)

Multiple Intelligences

Nine and tenth on the way (Canvas)

Sternberg, R. (p. 273)

Triarchic

Analytical, Practical, and Creative

Divergent thinking (multiple answers)

Five parts of creativity

Csikszentmihalyi

Salovey & Mayer/Goleman (Canvas)

Emotional Intelligence

In self and, in part, others

label or recognize emotion

understand or attribute emotion

modulate or manage emotion

effectively express emotion in C and B

Dweck file; Roosevelt quote; http://mindsetonline.com/testyourmindset/step1.php

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (p. 276)

Nurture/Nature: Early environmental influences along with the bloom and prune effect and neural networks

a note on “race”

Nurture: Schooling may lead to intelligence

Nature: Heritability appears to be about 40% although some ethologists claim up to 70%

The Flynn Effect p. 277 (and a quick anthropology lesson)

Foraging to Horticultural to Agricultural to State = means of production

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A Template for Problem Solving

Paul and Elder (2009); prepared for the Critical Thinking Foundation

To be an effective problem solver:

1. Identify your goals. Regularly re-articulate your goals, purposes, needs, and values. Use visualization and visuals with goals to assist with identification and motivation. A problem is an obstacle to reaching your goals, achieving your purpose, meeting your needs, and following your values. What will it look like when the problem is gone?

2. Identify your problems. The problem must be stated clearly and precisely.

3. Study the problem. Classify the problem. What kind of problem is it? Where did it come from? When does it occur? With whom does it occur?

4. Find your control. What parts of the problem are under your control and influence? What parts of the problem are not under your direct control and influence?

5. Information is needed to solve the problem. Figure out the information that is needed to solve the problem. Access and review this information. Use many sources if possible.

6. Carefully analyze the information needed to solve the problem. Be careful of fixation and egocentric/ethnocentric thinking during this process; you might be able to go with what worked before, but you also might have to try something completely new. Only make reasonable (reliable and valid) inferences from this data.

7. Determine options for action. Action is needed to solve problems. What can you accomplish in the short term? What will be a long term option for action to solve the problem? Identify both types of options. Recognize limitations: time, money, power, culture, et cetera.

8. Evaluate the options for action. Determine the theoretical strengths (advantages) and weaknesses (disadvantages) of each option.

9. Adopt a specific action plan. Follow it through. This might be a direct action for problem solving, or it might be a “wait and see” plan.

10. Monitor the implications of your actions. Be ready, at all times, to revise your action plan. Realize the situation might require flexibility. Be prepared to change your mind, gather more information, or alter your statement of the problem as you learn more about the problem.

(adapted for use at SFCC)

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